Q.10Briefly describe the talents of “Hans the Wonder Horse” . . . How was Hans able to perform all of his feats? Who was the psychologist that ultimately discovered how Hans was capable of completing these behaviors?
Q11.How did Thorndike demonstrate his theories of connectionism with his now famous “Puzzle Box”?
Q12.Briefly discuss the following terms:
a) Law of Effect:
b) Trial and error learning:
c) Reinforcement (positive and negative):
Q13.Briefly summarize the accomplishments of Bekhterev – both in psychology and politics:
Q14.How did the Functionalist school influence Watson’s behaviorism?
Hans the Wonder Horse was a remarkable horse with seemingly extraordinary talents during the early 20th century. He could perform various feats, such as answering arithmetic questions, telling time, identifying colors and musical tones, and even spelling out words by tapping his hoof. These remarkable abilities sparked considerable curiosity and intrigue among the public and scientists of the time.
Hans’ abilities were initially believed to be a sign of exceptional intelligence in animals. However, a German psychologist named Oskar Pfungst conducted a series of investigations to understand how Hans was able to achieve these feats. Pfungst discovered that Hans was not actually performing these tasks based on true intelligence or understanding, but rather, he was responding to subtle unintentional cues provided by the questioner or audience.
Specifically, Hans was highly sensitive to visual and auditory cues from the questioner, who often unwittingly provided unconscious signals when Hans was about to reach the correct answer. These cues could be as subtle as changes in body posture, facial expressions, or breathing patterns. Pfungst termed this phenomenon “clever Hans effect” or “Clever Hans phenomenon.”
Edward Thorndike, an American psychologist, was a pioneer in the study of animal learning and behavior. He formulated the theory of connectionism, which suggested that learning occurs through associations between stimuli and responses. To test his theories, Thorndike designed a simple apparatus known as the “Puzzle Box.”
The Puzzle Box was a controlled environment in which an animal, typically a cat, was placed. The box had a door that could be opened by manipulating a latch or lever from the inside. Inside the box, Thorndike placed food as an incentive to escape. The cat had to learn how to operate the latch or lever to open the door and access the food.
Through numerous trials, Thorndike observed the cat’s behavior and measured the time it took to escape. He noticed that the cat’s escape time decreased over trials, indicating that the animal learned through trial and error. Thorndike’s experiments provided empirical support for his theory of connectionism, which laid the groundwork for the understanding of instrumental or operant conditioning.
The Law of Effect, proposed by Edward Thorndike, states that behaviors followed by positive consequences or rewards are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by negative consequences are less likely to recur. In essence, behaviors leading to favorable outcomes are strengthened and become more probable, while behaviors associated with unfavorable outcomes weaken and become less likely.
Trial and error learning is a problem-solving or learning method in which an individual tries different solutions or behaviors one after another until a successful result is achieved. This process involves making random attempts and learning from the outcomes, refining subsequent attempts based on previous experiences. Edward Thorndike’s experiments with the Puzzle Box demonstrated trial and error learning in animals.
Reinforcement is a fundamental concept in operant conditioning, a learning theory developed by B.F. Skinner. It involves using consequences to strengthen or weaken behaviors. There are two types of reinforcement:
Positive Reinforcement: Involves presenting a favorable stimulus or reward immediately after a desired behavior occurs. This increases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated in the future.
Negative Reinforcement: Involves removing an aversive or unpleasant stimulus after a desired behavior is displayed. The removal of the aversive stimulus acts as a reward and increases the chances of the behavior being repeated.
Vladimir Bekhterev was a prominent Russian neurologist, psychiatrist, and psychologist in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He made significant contributions to both psychology and politics.
Bekhterev’s most notable contributions were in the field of reflexology, where he explored the connection between the nervous system and behavior. He proposed that behavior could be understood as a series of reflexes, and he studied various reflexes and their links to psychological phenomena. He also played a key role in the development of objective psychology, advocating for the use of scientific methods in psychological research.
Apart from his contributions to psychology, Bekhterev was politically active during the Russian Revolution. He supported the Bolshevik Party and was a member of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Presidium of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. He advocated for social reforms and played a role in establishing mental health policies and institutions in the early Soviet Union.
The Functionalist school of psychology emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and it focused on understanding the purpose and function of mental processes and behavior. Key figures in functionalism, such as William James and John Dewey, emphasized the study of consciousness, pragmatism, and adaptation to the environment. This approach laid the foundation for John B. Watson’s development of behaviorism.
Behaviorism, introduced by Watson, shifted the focus of psychology away from the study of consciousness and internal mental processes to observable behavior and its environmental determinants. Watson was influenced by the functionalists’ emphasis on the importance of studying behavior in context and the idea that behavior served adaptive functions.
Watson’s behaviorism rejected the study of subjective experiences and consciousness, and instead, he promoted the use of rigorous scientific methods to study behavior as a response to stimuli in the environment. This approach led to the rise of experimental behaviorism and the development of classical conditioning, which was further expanded by B.F. Skinner’s work on operant conditioning.
In summary, the functionalist school’s emphasis on studying behavior in a functional context laid the groundwork for Watson’s behaviorism, which revolutionized the field of psychology and significantly influenced the development of behaviorist theories and research methods.
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